Vitamins in COVID-19: Probable Mechanisms and Efficacy
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), also known as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is a pandemic crisis. Little is known about the treatment of this disease, and supportive care is the only therapy for patients with COVID-19. It has been shown that mineral vitamins have an important role in improving the health status of the patients, and several studies have investigated their effects on patients affected with other coronaviruses. In this review, the probable mechanisms of action of each vitamin against COVID-19 infection, the benefits of co-therapy of vitamins with other supplements, and the recommended daily intake of each nutrient are discussed.
1. Zaki AM, van Boheemen S, Bestebroer TM, Osterhaus AD, Fouchier RA. Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. N Engl J Med. 2012;367(19):1814-20.
2. van der Hoek L, Pyrc K, Jebbink MF, Vermeulen-Oost W, Berkhout RJ, Wolthers KC, et al. Identification of a new human coronavirus. Nat Med. 2004;10(4):368-73.
3. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497-506.
4. Coperchini F, Chiovato L, Croce L, Magri F, Rotondi M. The cytokine storm in COVID-19: An overview of the involvement of the chemokine/chemokine-receptor system. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2020;53:25-32.
5. Hanaei S, Rezaei N. COVID-19: Developing from an Outbreak to A Pandemic. Arch Med Res. 2020;51(6):582-84.
6. Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, Liang WH, Ou CQ, He JX, et al. Clinical Characteristics of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(18):1708-20.
7. Lotfi M, Rezaei N. SARS-CoV-2: A comprehensive review from pathogenicity of the virus to clinical consequences. J Med Virol. 2020;92(10):1864-74.
8. Heidarpour M, Vakhshoori M, Abbasi S, Shafie D, Rezaei N. Adrenal insufficiency in coronavirus disease 2019: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2020;14(1):134.
9. Goudarzi S, Dehghani Firouzabadi F, Dehghani Firouzabadi M, Rezaei N. Cutaneous lesions and COVID-19: Cystic painful lesion in a case with positive SARS-CoV-2. Dermatol Ther. 2020;33(6):e14266.
10. Jahanshahlu L, Rezaei N. Central Nervous System Involvement in COVID-19. Arch Med Res. 2020;51(7):721-22.
11. Saleki K, Banazadeh M, Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. The involvement of the central nervous system in patients with COVID-19. Rev Neurosci. 2020;31(4):453-56.
12. Chu H, Chan JF, Wang Y, Yuen TT, Chai Y, Hou Y, et al. Comparative Replication and Immune Activation Profiles of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV in Human Lungs: An Ex Vivo Study With Implications for the Pathogenesis of COVID-19. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(6):1400-09.
13. Fathi N, Rezaei N. Lymphopenia in COVID-19: Therapeutic opportunities. Cell Biol Int. 2020;44(9):1792-97.
14. Babaha F, Rezaei N. Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases in COVID-19 Pandemic: A Predisposing or Protective Factor? Am J Med Sci. 2020;360(6):740-41.
15. Ahanchian H, Moazzen N, Sezavar M, Khalighi N, Khoshkhui M, Aelami MH, et al. COVID-19 in a child with primary antibody deficiency. Clin Case Rep. 2021;9(2):755-58.
16. Bahrami A, Vafapour M, Moazzami B, Rezaei N. Hyperinflammatory shock related to COVID-19 in a patient presenting with multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children: First case from Iran. J Paediatr Child Health. 2021;57(6):922-25.
17. Yousefzadegan S, Rezaei N. Case Report: Death due to COVID-19 in Three Brothers. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2020;102(6):1203-04.
18. Darbeheshti F, Rezaei N. Genetic predisposition models to COVID-19 infection. Med Hypotheses. 2020;142:109818.
19. Rezaei N. COVID-19 and Medical Biotechnology. Avicenna J Med Biotechnol. 2020;12(3):139.
20. Zhang P, Zhu L, Cai J, Lei F, Qin JJ, Xie J, et al. Association of Inpatient Use of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors and Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers With Mortality Among Patients With Hypertension Hospitalized With COVID-19. Circ Res. 2020;126(12):1671-81.
21. Sharifkashani S, Bafrani MA, Khaboushan AS, Pirzadeh M, Kheirandish A, Yavarpour Bali H, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor and SARS-CoV-2: Potential therapeutic targeting. Eur J Pharmacol. 2020;884:173455.
22. Jee J, Hoet AE, Azevedo MP, Vlasova AN, Loerch SC, Pickworth CL, et al. Effects of dietary vitamin A content on antibody responses of feedlot calves inoculated intramuscularly with an inactivated bovine coronavirus vaccine. Am J Vet Res. 2013;74(10):1353-62.
23. Paul L, Ueland PM, Selhub J. Mechanistic perspective on the relationship between pyridoxal 5'-phosphate and inflammation. Nutr Rev. 2013;71(4):239-44.
24. Ulvik A, Midttun O, Pedersen ER, Eussen SJ, Nygard O, Ueland PM. Evidence for increased catabolism of vitamin B-6 during systemic inflammation. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;100(1):250-5.
25. Liu F, Zhu Y, Zhang J, Li Y, Peng Z. Intravenous high-dose vitamin C for the treatment of severe COVID-19: study protocol for a multicentre randomised controlled trial. BMJ Open. 2020;10(7):e039519.
26. Gauzzi MC, Fantuzzi L. Reply to Jakovac: COVID-19, vitamin D, and type I interferon. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2020;319(2):E245-E46.
27. Booth SL, Martini L, Peterson JW, Saltzman E, Dallal GE, Wood RJ. Dietary phylloquinone depletion and repletion in older women. J Nutr. 2003;133(8):2565-9.
28. Speeckaert MM, Delanghe JR. Association between low vitamin D and COVID-19: don't forget the vitamin D binding protein. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2020;32(7):1207-08.
29. Jayawardena R, Sooriyaarachchi P, Chourdakis M, Jeewandara C, Ranasinghe P. Enhancing immunity in viral infections, with special emphasis on COVID-19: A review. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2020;14(4):367-82.
30. Hurwitz JL, Jones BG, Penkert RR, Gansebom S, Sun Y, Tang L, et al. Low Retinol-Binding Protein and Vitamin D Levels Are Associated with Severe Outcomes in Children Hospitalized with Lower Respiratory Tract Infection and Respiratory Syncytial Virus or Human Metapneumovirus Detection. J Pediatr. 2017;187:323-27.
31. Timoneda J, Rodriguez-Fernandez L, Zaragoza R, Marin MP, Cabezuelo MT, Torres L, et al. Vitamin A Deficiency and the Lung. Nutrients. 2018;10(9):1132.
32. British Association of Otorhinolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery. Loss of sense of smell as marker of COVID-19 infection ENTUK: ENTUK; [Available from: https://www.entuk.org/loss-sense-smell-marker-covid-19-infection/default.aspx.
33. Symptoms of COVID-19 Centers for Disease control and Prevention2022 [updated 2024. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/symptoms-testing/symptoms.html.
34. Kanjanaumporn J, Aeumjaturapat S, Snidvongs K, Seresirikachorn K, Chusakul S. Smell and taste dysfunction in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection: A review of epidemiology, pathogenesis, prognosis, and treatment options. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol. 2020;38(2):69-77.
35. Yazdanpanah N, Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Anosmia: a missing link in the neuroimmunology of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Rev Neurosci. 2020;31(7):691-701.
36. Scangas GA, Bleier BS. Anosmia: Differential diagnosis, evaluation, and management. Am J Rhinol Allergy. 2017;31(1):3-7.
37. Reden J, Lill K, Zahnert T, Haehner A, Hummel T. Olfactory function in patients with postinfectious and posttraumatic smell disorders before and after treatment with vitamin A: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Laryngoscope. 2012;122(9):1906-9.
38. Hummel T, Whitcroft KL, Rueter G, Haehner A. Intranasal vitamin A is beneficial in post-infectious olfactory loss. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2017;274(7):2819-25.
39. West CE, Sijtsma SR, Kouwenhoven B, Rombout JH, van der Zijpp AJ. Epithelia-damaging virus infections affect vitamin A status in chickens. J Nutr. 1992;122(2):333-9.
40. Beigmohammadi MT, Bitarafan S, Hoseindokht A, Abdollahi A, Amoozadeh L, Mahmoodi Ali Abadi M, et al. Impact of vitamins A, B, C, D, and E supplementation on improvement and mortality rate in ICU patients with coronavirus-19: a structured summary of a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2020;21(1):614.
41. Ginde AA, Mansbach JM, Camargo CA, Jr. Association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and upper respiratory tract infection in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169(4):384-90.
42. Zhou YF, Luo BA, Qin LL. The association between vitamin D deficiency and community-acquired pneumonia: A meta-analysis of observational studies. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019;98(38):e17252.
43. Jolliffe DA, Griffiths CJ, Martineau AR. Vitamin D in the prevention of acute respiratory infection: systematic review of clinical studies. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2013;136:321-9.
44. Tripathi S, Tecle T, Verma A, Crouch E, White M, Hartshorn KL. The human cathelicidin LL-37 inhibits influenza A viruses through a mechanism distinct from that of surfactant protein D or defensins. J Gen Virol. 2013;94(Pt 1):40-49.
45. Infusino F, Marazzato M, Mancone M, Fedele F, Mastroianni CM, Severino P, et al. Diet Supplementation, Probiotics, and Nutraceuticals in SARS-CoV-2 Infection: A Scoping Review. Nutrients. 2020;12(6):1718.
46. Grant WB, Lahore H, McDonnell SL, Baggerly CA, French CB, Aliano JL, et al. Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths. Nutrients. 2020;12(4).
47. Ilie PC, Stefanescu S, Smith L. The role of vitamin D in the prevention of coronavirus disease 2019 infection and mortality. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2020;32(7):1195-98.
48. Al-Samkari H, Karp Leaf RS, Dzik WH, Carlson JCT, Fogerty AE, Waheed A, et al. COVID-19 and coagulation: bleeding and thrombotic manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Blood. 2020;136(4):489-500.
49. Shojaeefar E, Malih N, Rezaei N. The possible double-edged sword effects of vitamin D on COVID-19: A hypothesis. Cell Biol Int. 2021;45(1):54-57.
50. Saraiva GL, Cendoroglo MS, Ramos LR, Araujo LM, Vieira JG, Maeda SS, et al. [Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency, insufficiency and secondary hyperparathyroidism in the elderly inpatients and living in the community of the city of Sao Paulo, Brazil]. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 2007;51(3):437-42.
51. Rhodes JM, Subramanian S, Laird E, Kenny RA. Editorial: low population mortality from COVID-19 in countries south of latitude 35 degrees North supports vitamin D as a factor determining severity. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2020;51(12):1434-37.
52. McCartney DM, Byrne DG. Optimisation of Vitamin D Status for Enhanced Immuno-protection Against Covid-19. Ir Med J. 2020;113(4):58.
53. Ebadi M, Montano-Loza AJ. Perspective: improving vitamin D status in the management of COVID-19. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2020;74(6):856-59.
54. Martineau AR, Jolliffe DA, Greenberg L, Aloia JF, Bergman P, Dubnov-Raz G, et al. Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory infections: individual participant data meta-analysis. Health Technol Assess. 2019;23(2):1-44.
55. Kow CS, Hadi MA, Hasan SS. Vitamin D Supplementation in Influenza and COVID-19 Infections Comment on: "Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths" Nutrients 2020, 12(4), 988. Nutrients. 2020;12(6).
56. Zhang R, Wang X, Ni L, Di X, Ma B, Niu S, et al. COVID-19: Melatonin as a potential adjuvant treatment. Life Sci. 2020;250:117583.
57. Rokni M, Hamblin MR, Rezaei N. Cytokines and COVID-19: friends or foes? Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2020;16(10):2363-65.
58. Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Immune-epidemiological parameters of the novel coronavirus - a perspective. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2020;16(5):465-70.
59. Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Towards treatment planning of COVID-19: Rationale and hypothesis for the use of multiple immunosuppressive agents: Anti-antibodies, immunoglobulins, and corticosteroids. Int Immunopharmacol. 2020;84:106560.
60. Zarezadeh M, Khorshidi M, Emami M, Janmohammadi P, Kord-Varkaneh H, Mousavi SM, et al. Melatonin supplementation and pro-inflammatory mediators: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials. Eur J Nutr. 2020;59(5):1803-13.
61. Patel AB, Verma A. COVID-19 and Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors and Angiotensin Receptor Blockers: What Is the Evidence? JAMA. 2020;323(18):1769-70.
62. Campos LA, Cipolla-Neto J, Amaral FG, Michelini LC, Bader M, Baltatu OC. The Angiotensin-melatonin axis. Int J Hypertens. 2013;2013:521783.
63. Ishigaki S, Ohashi N, Matsuyama T, Isobe S, Tsuji N, Iwakura T, et al. Melatonin ameliorates intrarenal renin-angiotensin system in a 5/6 nephrectomy rat model. Clin Exp Nephrol. 2018;22(3):539-49.
64. Wu X, Ji H, Wang Y, Gu C, Gu W, Hu L, et al. Melatonin Alleviates Radiation-Induced Lung Injury via Regulation of miR-30e/NLRP3 Axis. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2019;2019:4087298.
65. Al-Rasheed NM, Fadda L, Attia HA, Sharaf IA, Mohamed AM, Al-Rasheed NM. Original research paper. Pulmonary prophylactic impact of melatonin and/or quercetin: A novel therapy for inflammatory hypoxic stress in rats. Acta Pharm. 2017;67(1):125-35.
66. Leshchinsky TV, Klasing KC. Relationship between the level of dietary vitamin E and the immune response of broiler chickens. Poult Sci. 2001;80(11):1590-9.
67. Zabetakis I, Lordan R, Norton C, Tsoupras A. COVID-19: The Inflammation Link and the Role of Nutrition in Potential Mitigation. Nutrients. 2020;12(5).
68. Ye Q, Wang B, Mao J. The pathogenesis and treatment of the ;Cytokine Storm' in COVID-19. J Infect. 2020;80(6):607-13.
69. Nasab MG, Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. SARS-CoV-2-A Tough Opponent for the Immune System. Arch Med Res. 2020;51(6):589-92.
70. Yazdanpanah F, Hamblin MR, Rezaei N. The immune system and COVID-19: Friend or foe? Life Sci. 2020;256:117900.
71. Dofferhoff ASM, Piscaer I, Schurgers LJ, Visser MPJ, van den Ouweland JMW, de Jong PA, et al. Reduced Vitamin K Status as a Potentially Modifiable Risk Factor of Severe Coronavirus Disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73(11):e4039-e46.
72. Khanduja KL, Avti PK, Kumar S, Pathania V, Pathak CM. Inhibitory effect of vitamin E on proinflammatory cytokines-and endotoxin-induced nitric oxide release in alveolar macrophages. Life Sci. 2005;76(23):2669-80.
73. Rostami H, Seidavi A, Dadashbeiki M, Asadpour Y, Simoes J, Shah AA, et al. Supplementing dietary rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) powder and vitamin E in broiler chickens: evaluation of humoral immune response, lymphoid organs, and blood proteins. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2018;25(9):8836-42.
74. Wang JZ, Zhang RY, Bai J. An anti-oxidative therapy for ameliorating cardiac injuries of critically ill COVID-19-infected patients. Int J Cardiol. 2020;312:137-38.
75. Nejadghaderi SA, Heidari A, Shakerian N, Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Cardiovascular system is at higher risk of affecting by COVID-19. Acta Biomed. 2020;91(3):e2020018.
76. Gandhi RT, Lynch JB, Del Rio C. Mild or Moderate Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(18):1757-66.
77. Bar-On YM, Flamholz A, Phillips R, Milo R. SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) by the numbers. Elife. 2020;9:e57309.
78. Butler MW, O'Reilly A, Dunican EM, Mallon P, Feeney ER, Keane MP, et al. Prevalence of comorbid asthma in COVID-19 patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020;146(2):334-35.
79. Yang X, Yu Y, Xu J, Shu H, Xia J, Liu H, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(5):475-81.
80. Li X, Xu S, Yu M, Wang K, Tao Y, Zhou Y, et al. Risk factors for severity and mortality in adult COVID-19 inpatients in Wuhan. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020;146(1):110-18.
81. Tang N, Li D, Wang X, Sun Z. Abnormal coagulation parameters are associated with poor prognosis in patients with novel coronavirus pneumonia. J Thromb Haemost. 2020;18(4):844-47.
82. Jenab Y, Rezaei N, Hedayat B, Naderian M, Shirani S, Hosseini K. Occurrence of acute coronary syndrome, pulmonary thromboembolism, and cerebrovascular event in COVID-19. Clin Case Rep. 2020;8(12):2414-17.
83. Brenner B, Kuperman AA, Watzka M, Oldenburg J. Vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors deficiency. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2009;35(4):439-46.
84. Fair DS, Marlar RA, Levin EG. Human endothelial cells synthesize protein S. Blood. 1986;67(4):1168-71.
85. Fodor D, Albu A, Poanta L, Porojan M. Vitamin K and vascular calcifications. Acta Physiol Hung. 2010;97(3):256-66.
86. Nigwekar SU, Thadhani R, Brandenburg VM. Calciphylaxis. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(18):1704-14.
87. Luisetti M, Stolk J, Iadarola P. Desmosine, a biomarker for COPD: old and in the way. Eur Respir J. 2012;39(4):797-8.
88. Speed V, Patel RK, Byrne R, Roberts LN, Arya R. A perfect storm: Root cause analysis of supra-therapeutic anticoagulation with vitamin K antagonists during the COVID-19 pandemic. Thromb Res. 2020;192:73-74.
89. Doganci S, Yildirim AK. Problems related with anticoagulant usage during COVID-19 outbreak. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord. 2020;8(4):695-96.
90. Lotfi M, Hamblin MR, Rezaei N. COVID-19: Transmission, prevention, and potential therapeutic opportunities. Clin Chim Acta. 2020;508:254-66.
91. Mohamed K, Rezaei N, Rodriguez-Roman E, Rahmani F, Zhang H, Ivanovska M, et al. International Efforts to Save Healthcare Personnel during COVID-19. Acta Biomed. 2020;91(3):e2020044.
92. Hellmann H, Mooney S. Vitamin B6: a molecule for human health? Molecules. 2010;15(1):442-59.
93. Bates CJ, Pentieva KD, Prentice A, Mansoor MA, Finch S. Plasma pyridoxal phosphate and pyridoxic acid and their relationship to plasma homocysteine in a representative sample of British men and women aged 65 years and over. Br J Nutr. 1999;81(3):191-201.
94. Wang L. C-reactive protein levels in the early stage of COVID-19. Med Mal Infect. 2020;50(4):332-34.
95. Shen J, Lai CQ, Mattei J, Ordovas JM, Tucker KL. Association of vitamin B-6 status with inflammation, oxidative stress, and chronic inflammatory conditions: the Boston Puerto Rican Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91(2):337-42.
96. Wu C, Chen X, Cai Y, Xia J, Zhou X, Xu S, et al. Risk Factors Associated With Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome and Death in Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA Intern Med. 2020;180(7):934-43.
97. Dakshinamurti K, Paulose CS, Viswanathan M, Siow YL, Sharma SK, Bolster B. Neurobiology of pyridoxine. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1990;585:128-44.
98. Despoint R, Lupien P. Inhibition of renin response in pyridoxine-treated pregnant and non-pregnant rats. Can Med Assoc J 1968 Vol. 98, No. 2:109.
99. DeLorme CB, Lupien PJ, Despointes RH. Influence of vitamin B-6 on the renin--angiotensin system in rats. J Nutr. 1975;105(9):1192-8.
100. Mousavi S, Bereswill S, Heimesaat MM. Immunomodulatory and Antimicrobial Effects of Vitamin C. Eur J Microbiol Immunol (Bp). 2019;9(3):73-79.
101. Carr AC, Maggini S. Vitamin C and Immune Function. Nutrients. 2017;9(11):1211.
102. Barnes BJ, Adrover JM, Baxter-Stoltzfus A, Borczuk A, Cools-Lartigue J, Crawford JM, et al. Targeting potential drivers of COVID-19: Neutrophil extracellular traps. J Exp Med. 2020;217(6).
103. Colunga Biancatelli RML, Berrill M, Catravas JD, Marik PE. Quercetin and Vitamin C: An Experimental, Synergistic Therapy for the Prevention and Treatment of SARS-CoV-2 Related Disease (COVID-19). Front Immunol. 2020;11(1451):1451.
104. Hemila H, Chalker E. Vitamin C as a Possible Therapy for COVID-19. Infect Chemother. 2020;52(2):222-23.
105. Hemila H, Chalker E. Vitamin C for preventing and treating the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;2013(1):CD000980.
106. Hiedra R, Lo KB, Elbashabsheh M, Gul F, Wright RM, Albano J, et al. The use of IV vitamin C for patients with COVID-19: a case series. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2020;18(12):1259-61.
107. Patel V, Dial K, Wu J, Gauthier AG, Wu W, Lin M, et al. Dietary Antioxidants Significantly Attenuate Hyperoxia-Induced Acute Inflammatory Lung Injury by Enhancing Macrophage Function via Reducing the Accumulation of Airway HMGB1. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(3):977.
108. Kim TK, Lim HR, Byun JS. Vitamin C supplementation reduces the odds of developing a common cold in Republic of Korea Army recruits: randomised controlled trial. BMJ Mil Health. 2022;168(2):117-23.
109. Gorton HC, Jarvis K. The effectiveness of vitamin C in preventing and relieving the symptoms of virus-induced respiratory infections. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 1999;22(8):530-3.
110. Feyaerts AF, Luyten W. Vitamin C as prophylaxis and adjunctive medical treatment for COVID-19? Nutrition. 2020;79-80:110948.
111. Carr AC. A new clinical trial to test high-dose vitamin C in patients with COVID-19. Crit Care. 2020;24(1):133.
112. Cheng RZ. Can early and high intravenous dose of vitamin C prevent and treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)? Med Drug Discov. 2020;5:100028.
113. Li R, Wu K, Li Y, Liang X, Lai KP, Chen J. Integrative pharmacological mechanism of vitamin C combined with glycyrrhizic acid against COVID-19: findings of bioinformatics analyses. Brief Bioinform. 2021;22(2):1161-74.
114. Robaszkiewicz A, Balcerczyk A, Bartosz G. Antioxidative and prooxidative effects of quercetin on A549 cells. Cell Biol Int. 2007;31(10):1245-50.
115. Uchide N, Toyoda H. Antioxidant therapy as a potential approach to severe influenza-associated complications. Molecules. 2011;16(3):2032-52.
116. Nair MP, Kandaswami C, Mahajan S, Chadha KC, Chawda R, Nair H, et al. The flavonoid, quercetin, differentially regulates Th-1 (IFNgamma) and Th-2 (IL4) cytokine gene expression by normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2002;1593(1):29-36.
117. Momtazmanesh S, Ochs HD, Uddin LQ, Perc M, Routes JM, Vieira DN, et al. All together to Fight COVID-19. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2020;102(6):1181-83.
118. Rezaei N. COVID-19 affects healthy pediatricians more than pediatric patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2020;41(9):1106-07.
119. Mirbeyk M, Rezaei N. The impact of COVID-19 on pregnancy and neonatal health: a systematic review. Europe PMC. 2020.
120. Basiri A, Heidari A, Nadi MF, Fallahy MTP, Nezamabadi SS, Sedighi M, et al. Microfluidic devices for detection of RNA viruses. Rev Med Virol. 2021;31(1):1-11.
121. Sahu KK, Siddiqui AD, Rezaei N, Cerny J. Challenges for management of immune thrombocytopenia during COVID-19 pandemic. J Med Virol. 2020;92(11):2277-82.
122. Jabbari P, Rezaei N. With Risk of Reinfection, Is COVID-19 Here to Stay? Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2020;14(4):e33.
123. Mohamed K, Rodriguez-Roman E, Rahmani F, Zhang H, Ivanovska M, Makka SA, et al. Borderless collaboration is needed for COVID-19-A disease that knows no borders. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2020;41(10):1245-46.
124. Moradian N, Ochs HD, Sedikies C, Hamblin MR, Camargo CA, Jr., Martinez JA, et al. The urgent need for integrated science to fight COVID-19 pandemic and beyond. J Transl Med. 2020;18(1):205.
125. Rzymski P, Nowicki M, Mullin GE, Abraham A, Rodríguez-Román E, Petzold MB, et al. Quantity does not equal quality: scientific principles cannot be sacrificed. Int Immunopharmacol 2020;86:106711.
126. Basiri A, Pazhouhnia Z, Beheshtizadeh N, Hoseinpour M, Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Regenerative Medicine in COVID-19 Treatment: Real Opportunities and Range of Promises. Stem Cell Rev Rep. 2021;17(1):163-75.
127. Jahanshahlu L, Rezaei N. Monoclonal antibody as a potential anti-COVID-19. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020;129:110337.
128. Mansourabadi AH, Sadeghalvad M, Mohammadi-Motlagh HR, Rezaei N. The immune system as a target for therapy of SARS-CoV-2: A systematic review of the current immunotherapies for COVID-19. Life Sci. 2020;258:118185.
129. Pashaei M, Rezaei N. Immunotherapy for SARS-CoV-2: potential opportunities. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2020;20(10):1111-16.
130. Seyedpour S, Khodaei B, Loghman AH, Seyedpour N, Kisomi MF, Balibegloo M, et al. Targeted therapy strategies against SARS-CoV-2 cell entry mechanisms: A systematic review of in vitro and in vivo studies. J Cell Physiol. 2021;236(4):2364-92.
131. Pourahmad R, Moazzami B, Rezaei N. E ficacy of Plasmapheresis and Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy (IVIG) on Patients with COVID-19. SN Compr Clin Med. 2020;2(9):1407-11.
132. Moazzami B, Razavi-Khorasani N, Dooghaie Moghadam A, Farokhi E, Rezaei N. COVID-19 and telemedicine: Immediate action required for maintaining healthcare providers well-being. J Clin Virol. 2020;126:104345.
133. Mohamed K, Yazdanpanah N, Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Computational drug discovery and repurposing for the treatment of COVID-19: A systematic review. Bioorg Chem. 2021;106:104490.
134. Rabiee N, Rabiee M, Bagherzadeh M, Rezaei N. COVID-19 and picotechnology: Potential opportunities. Med Hypotheses. 2020;144:109917.
135. Neuzil KM, Gruber WC, Chytil F, Stahlman MT, Graham BS. Safety and pharmacokinetics of vitamin A therapy for infants with respiratory syncytial virus infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995;39(5):1191-3.
136. Martin Gimenez VM, Inserra F, Tajer CD, Mariani J, Ferder L, Reiter RJ, et al. Lungs as target of COVID-19 infection: Protective common molecular mechanisms of vitamin D and melatonin as a new potential synergistic treatment. Life Sci. 2020;254:117808.
137. Marik PE, Khangoora V, Rivera R, Hooper MH, Catravas J. Hydrocortisone, Vitamin C, and Thiamine for the Treatment of Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock: A Retrospective Before-After Study. Chest. 2017;151(6):1229-38.
2. van der Hoek L, Pyrc K, Jebbink MF, Vermeulen-Oost W, Berkhout RJ, Wolthers KC, et al. Identification of a new human coronavirus. Nat Med. 2004;10(4):368-73.
3. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497-506.
4. Coperchini F, Chiovato L, Croce L, Magri F, Rotondi M. The cytokine storm in COVID-19: An overview of the involvement of the chemokine/chemokine-receptor system. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2020;53:25-32.
5. Hanaei S, Rezaei N. COVID-19: Developing from an Outbreak to A Pandemic. Arch Med Res. 2020;51(6):582-84.
6. Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, Liang WH, Ou CQ, He JX, et al. Clinical Characteristics of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(18):1708-20.
7. Lotfi M, Rezaei N. SARS-CoV-2: A comprehensive review from pathogenicity of the virus to clinical consequences. J Med Virol. 2020;92(10):1864-74.
8. Heidarpour M, Vakhshoori M, Abbasi S, Shafie D, Rezaei N. Adrenal insufficiency in coronavirus disease 2019: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2020;14(1):134.
9. Goudarzi S, Dehghani Firouzabadi F, Dehghani Firouzabadi M, Rezaei N. Cutaneous lesions and COVID-19: Cystic painful lesion in a case with positive SARS-CoV-2. Dermatol Ther. 2020;33(6):e14266.
10. Jahanshahlu L, Rezaei N. Central Nervous System Involvement in COVID-19. Arch Med Res. 2020;51(7):721-22.
11. Saleki K, Banazadeh M, Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. The involvement of the central nervous system in patients with COVID-19. Rev Neurosci. 2020;31(4):453-56.
12. Chu H, Chan JF, Wang Y, Yuen TT, Chai Y, Hou Y, et al. Comparative Replication and Immune Activation Profiles of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV in Human Lungs: An Ex Vivo Study With Implications for the Pathogenesis of COVID-19. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(6):1400-09.
13. Fathi N, Rezaei N. Lymphopenia in COVID-19: Therapeutic opportunities. Cell Biol Int. 2020;44(9):1792-97.
14. Babaha F, Rezaei N. Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases in COVID-19 Pandemic: A Predisposing or Protective Factor? Am J Med Sci. 2020;360(6):740-41.
15. Ahanchian H, Moazzen N, Sezavar M, Khalighi N, Khoshkhui M, Aelami MH, et al. COVID-19 in a child with primary antibody deficiency. Clin Case Rep. 2021;9(2):755-58.
16. Bahrami A, Vafapour M, Moazzami B, Rezaei N. Hyperinflammatory shock related to COVID-19 in a patient presenting with multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children: First case from Iran. J Paediatr Child Health. 2021;57(6):922-25.
17. Yousefzadegan S, Rezaei N. Case Report: Death due to COVID-19 in Three Brothers. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2020;102(6):1203-04.
18. Darbeheshti F, Rezaei N. Genetic predisposition models to COVID-19 infection. Med Hypotheses. 2020;142:109818.
19. Rezaei N. COVID-19 and Medical Biotechnology. Avicenna J Med Biotechnol. 2020;12(3):139.
20. Zhang P, Zhu L, Cai J, Lei F, Qin JJ, Xie J, et al. Association of Inpatient Use of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors and Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers With Mortality Among Patients With Hypertension Hospitalized With COVID-19. Circ Res. 2020;126(12):1671-81.
21. Sharifkashani S, Bafrani MA, Khaboushan AS, Pirzadeh M, Kheirandish A, Yavarpour Bali H, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor and SARS-CoV-2: Potential therapeutic targeting. Eur J Pharmacol. 2020;884:173455.
22. Jee J, Hoet AE, Azevedo MP, Vlasova AN, Loerch SC, Pickworth CL, et al. Effects of dietary vitamin A content on antibody responses of feedlot calves inoculated intramuscularly with an inactivated bovine coronavirus vaccine. Am J Vet Res. 2013;74(10):1353-62.
23. Paul L, Ueland PM, Selhub J. Mechanistic perspective on the relationship between pyridoxal 5'-phosphate and inflammation. Nutr Rev. 2013;71(4):239-44.
24. Ulvik A, Midttun O, Pedersen ER, Eussen SJ, Nygard O, Ueland PM. Evidence for increased catabolism of vitamin B-6 during systemic inflammation. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;100(1):250-5.
25. Liu F, Zhu Y, Zhang J, Li Y, Peng Z. Intravenous high-dose vitamin C for the treatment of severe COVID-19: study protocol for a multicentre randomised controlled trial. BMJ Open. 2020;10(7):e039519.
26. Gauzzi MC, Fantuzzi L. Reply to Jakovac: COVID-19, vitamin D, and type I interferon. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2020;319(2):E245-E46.
27. Booth SL, Martini L, Peterson JW, Saltzman E, Dallal GE, Wood RJ. Dietary phylloquinone depletion and repletion in older women. J Nutr. 2003;133(8):2565-9.
28. Speeckaert MM, Delanghe JR. Association between low vitamin D and COVID-19: don't forget the vitamin D binding protein. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2020;32(7):1207-08.
29. Jayawardena R, Sooriyaarachchi P, Chourdakis M, Jeewandara C, Ranasinghe P. Enhancing immunity in viral infections, with special emphasis on COVID-19: A review. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2020;14(4):367-82.
30. Hurwitz JL, Jones BG, Penkert RR, Gansebom S, Sun Y, Tang L, et al. Low Retinol-Binding Protein and Vitamin D Levels Are Associated with Severe Outcomes in Children Hospitalized with Lower Respiratory Tract Infection and Respiratory Syncytial Virus or Human Metapneumovirus Detection. J Pediatr. 2017;187:323-27.
31. Timoneda J, Rodriguez-Fernandez L, Zaragoza R, Marin MP, Cabezuelo MT, Torres L, et al. Vitamin A Deficiency and the Lung. Nutrients. 2018;10(9):1132.
32. British Association of Otorhinolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery. Loss of sense of smell as marker of COVID-19 infection ENTUK: ENTUK; [Available from: https://www.entuk.org/loss-sense-smell-marker-covid-19-infection/default.aspx.
33. Symptoms of COVID-19 Centers for Disease control and Prevention2022 [updated 2024. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/symptoms-testing/symptoms.html.
34. Kanjanaumporn J, Aeumjaturapat S, Snidvongs K, Seresirikachorn K, Chusakul S. Smell and taste dysfunction in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection: A review of epidemiology, pathogenesis, prognosis, and treatment options. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol. 2020;38(2):69-77.
35. Yazdanpanah N, Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Anosmia: a missing link in the neuroimmunology of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Rev Neurosci. 2020;31(7):691-701.
36. Scangas GA, Bleier BS. Anosmia: Differential diagnosis, evaluation, and management. Am J Rhinol Allergy. 2017;31(1):3-7.
37. Reden J, Lill K, Zahnert T, Haehner A, Hummel T. Olfactory function in patients with postinfectious and posttraumatic smell disorders before and after treatment with vitamin A: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Laryngoscope. 2012;122(9):1906-9.
38. Hummel T, Whitcroft KL, Rueter G, Haehner A. Intranasal vitamin A is beneficial in post-infectious olfactory loss. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2017;274(7):2819-25.
39. West CE, Sijtsma SR, Kouwenhoven B, Rombout JH, van der Zijpp AJ. Epithelia-damaging virus infections affect vitamin A status in chickens. J Nutr. 1992;122(2):333-9.
40. Beigmohammadi MT, Bitarafan S, Hoseindokht A, Abdollahi A, Amoozadeh L, Mahmoodi Ali Abadi M, et al. Impact of vitamins A, B, C, D, and E supplementation on improvement and mortality rate in ICU patients with coronavirus-19: a structured summary of a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2020;21(1):614.
41. Ginde AA, Mansbach JM, Camargo CA, Jr. Association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and upper respiratory tract infection in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169(4):384-90.
42. Zhou YF, Luo BA, Qin LL. The association between vitamin D deficiency and community-acquired pneumonia: A meta-analysis of observational studies. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019;98(38):e17252.
43. Jolliffe DA, Griffiths CJ, Martineau AR. Vitamin D in the prevention of acute respiratory infection: systematic review of clinical studies. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2013;136:321-9.
44. Tripathi S, Tecle T, Verma A, Crouch E, White M, Hartshorn KL. The human cathelicidin LL-37 inhibits influenza A viruses through a mechanism distinct from that of surfactant protein D or defensins. J Gen Virol. 2013;94(Pt 1):40-49.
45. Infusino F, Marazzato M, Mancone M, Fedele F, Mastroianni CM, Severino P, et al. Diet Supplementation, Probiotics, and Nutraceuticals in SARS-CoV-2 Infection: A Scoping Review. Nutrients. 2020;12(6):1718.
46. Grant WB, Lahore H, McDonnell SL, Baggerly CA, French CB, Aliano JL, et al. Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths. Nutrients. 2020;12(4).
47. Ilie PC, Stefanescu S, Smith L. The role of vitamin D in the prevention of coronavirus disease 2019 infection and mortality. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2020;32(7):1195-98.
48. Al-Samkari H, Karp Leaf RS, Dzik WH, Carlson JCT, Fogerty AE, Waheed A, et al. COVID-19 and coagulation: bleeding and thrombotic manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Blood. 2020;136(4):489-500.
49. Shojaeefar E, Malih N, Rezaei N. The possible double-edged sword effects of vitamin D on COVID-19: A hypothesis. Cell Biol Int. 2021;45(1):54-57.
50. Saraiva GL, Cendoroglo MS, Ramos LR, Araujo LM, Vieira JG, Maeda SS, et al. [Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency, insufficiency and secondary hyperparathyroidism in the elderly inpatients and living in the community of the city of Sao Paulo, Brazil]. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 2007;51(3):437-42.
51. Rhodes JM, Subramanian S, Laird E, Kenny RA. Editorial: low population mortality from COVID-19 in countries south of latitude 35 degrees North supports vitamin D as a factor determining severity. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2020;51(12):1434-37.
52. McCartney DM, Byrne DG. Optimisation of Vitamin D Status for Enhanced Immuno-protection Against Covid-19. Ir Med J. 2020;113(4):58.
53. Ebadi M, Montano-Loza AJ. Perspective: improving vitamin D status in the management of COVID-19. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2020;74(6):856-59.
54. Martineau AR, Jolliffe DA, Greenberg L, Aloia JF, Bergman P, Dubnov-Raz G, et al. Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory infections: individual participant data meta-analysis. Health Technol Assess. 2019;23(2):1-44.
55. Kow CS, Hadi MA, Hasan SS. Vitamin D Supplementation in Influenza and COVID-19 Infections Comment on: "Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths" Nutrients 2020, 12(4), 988. Nutrients. 2020;12(6).
56. Zhang R, Wang X, Ni L, Di X, Ma B, Niu S, et al. COVID-19: Melatonin as a potential adjuvant treatment. Life Sci. 2020;250:117583.
57. Rokni M, Hamblin MR, Rezaei N. Cytokines and COVID-19: friends or foes? Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2020;16(10):2363-65.
58. Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Immune-epidemiological parameters of the novel coronavirus - a perspective. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2020;16(5):465-70.
59. Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Towards treatment planning of COVID-19: Rationale and hypothesis for the use of multiple immunosuppressive agents: Anti-antibodies, immunoglobulins, and corticosteroids. Int Immunopharmacol. 2020;84:106560.
60. Zarezadeh M, Khorshidi M, Emami M, Janmohammadi P, Kord-Varkaneh H, Mousavi SM, et al. Melatonin supplementation and pro-inflammatory mediators: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials. Eur J Nutr. 2020;59(5):1803-13.
61. Patel AB, Verma A. COVID-19 and Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors and Angiotensin Receptor Blockers: What Is the Evidence? JAMA. 2020;323(18):1769-70.
62. Campos LA, Cipolla-Neto J, Amaral FG, Michelini LC, Bader M, Baltatu OC. The Angiotensin-melatonin axis. Int J Hypertens. 2013;2013:521783.
63. Ishigaki S, Ohashi N, Matsuyama T, Isobe S, Tsuji N, Iwakura T, et al. Melatonin ameliorates intrarenal renin-angiotensin system in a 5/6 nephrectomy rat model. Clin Exp Nephrol. 2018;22(3):539-49.
64. Wu X, Ji H, Wang Y, Gu C, Gu W, Hu L, et al. Melatonin Alleviates Radiation-Induced Lung Injury via Regulation of miR-30e/NLRP3 Axis. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2019;2019:4087298.
65. Al-Rasheed NM, Fadda L, Attia HA, Sharaf IA, Mohamed AM, Al-Rasheed NM. Original research paper. Pulmonary prophylactic impact of melatonin and/or quercetin: A novel therapy for inflammatory hypoxic stress in rats. Acta Pharm. 2017;67(1):125-35.
66. Leshchinsky TV, Klasing KC. Relationship between the level of dietary vitamin E and the immune response of broiler chickens. Poult Sci. 2001;80(11):1590-9.
67. Zabetakis I, Lordan R, Norton C, Tsoupras A. COVID-19: The Inflammation Link and the Role of Nutrition in Potential Mitigation. Nutrients. 2020;12(5).
68. Ye Q, Wang B, Mao J. The pathogenesis and treatment of the ;Cytokine Storm' in COVID-19. J Infect. 2020;80(6):607-13.
69. Nasab MG, Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. SARS-CoV-2-A Tough Opponent for the Immune System. Arch Med Res. 2020;51(6):589-92.
70. Yazdanpanah F, Hamblin MR, Rezaei N. The immune system and COVID-19: Friend or foe? Life Sci. 2020;256:117900.
71. Dofferhoff ASM, Piscaer I, Schurgers LJ, Visser MPJ, van den Ouweland JMW, de Jong PA, et al. Reduced Vitamin K Status as a Potentially Modifiable Risk Factor of Severe Coronavirus Disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73(11):e4039-e46.
72. Khanduja KL, Avti PK, Kumar S, Pathania V, Pathak CM. Inhibitory effect of vitamin E on proinflammatory cytokines-and endotoxin-induced nitric oxide release in alveolar macrophages. Life Sci. 2005;76(23):2669-80.
73. Rostami H, Seidavi A, Dadashbeiki M, Asadpour Y, Simoes J, Shah AA, et al. Supplementing dietary rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) powder and vitamin E in broiler chickens: evaluation of humoral immune response, lymphoid organs, and blood proteins. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2018;25(9):8836-42.
74. Wang JZ, Zhang RY, Bai J. An anti-oxidative therapy for ameliorating cardiac injuries of critically ill COVID-19-infected patients. Int J Cardiol. 2020;312:137-38.
75. Nejadghaderi SA, Heidari A, Shakerian N, Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Cardiovascular system is at higher risk of affecting by COVID-19. Acta Biomed. 2020;91(3):e2020018.
76. Gandhi RT, Lynch JB, Del Rio C. Mild or Moderate Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(18):1757-66.
77. Bar-On YM, Flamholz A, Phillips R, Milo R. SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) by the numbers. Elife. 2020;9:e57309.
78. Butler MW, O'Reilly A, Dunican EM, Mallon P, Feeney ER, Keane MP, et al. Prevalence of comorbid asthma in COVID-19 patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020;146(2):334-35.
79. Yang X, Yu Y, Xu J, Shu H, Xia J, Liu H, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(5):475-81.
80. Li X, Xu S, Yu M, Wang K, Tao Y, Zhou Y, et al. Risk factors for severity and mortality in adult COVID-19 inpatients in Wuhan. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020;146(1):110-18.
81. Tang N, Li D, Wang X, Sun Z. Abnormal coagulation parameters are associated with poor prognosis in patients with novel coronavirus pneumonia. J Thromb Haemost. 2020;18(4):844-47.
82. Jenab Y, Rezaei N, Hedayat B, Naderian M, Shirani S, Hosseini K. Occurrence of acute coronary syndrome, pulmonary thromboembolism, and cerebrovascular event in COVID-19. Clin Case Rep. 2020;8(12):2414-17.
83. Brenner B, Kuperman AA, Watzka M, Oldenburg J. Vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors deficiency. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2009;35(4):439-46.
84. Fair DS, Marlar RA, Levin EG. Human endothelial cells synthesize protein S. Blood. 1986;67(4):1168-71.
85. Fodor D, Albu A, Poanta L, Porojan M. Vitamin K and vascular calcifications. Acta Physiol Hung. 2010;97(3):256-66.
86. Nigwekar SU, Thadhani R, Brandenburg VM. Calciphylaxis. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(18):1704-14.
87. Luisetti M, Stolk J, Iadarola P. Desmosine, a biomarker for COPD: old and in the way. Eur Respir J. 2012;39(4):797-8.
88. Speed V, Patel RK, Byrne R, Roberts LN, Arya R. A perfect storm: Root cause analysis of supra-therapeutic anticoagulation with vitamin K antagonists during the COVID-19 pandemic. Thromb Res. 2020;192:73-74.
89. Doganci S, Yildirim AK. Problems related with anticoagulant usage during COVID-19 outbreak. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord. 2020;8(4):695-96.
90. Lotfi M, Hamblin MR, Rezaei N. COVID-19: Transmission, prevention, and potential therapeutic opportunities. Clin Chim Acta. 2020;508:254-66.
91. Mohamed K, Rezaei N, Rodriguez-Roman E, Rahmani F, Zhang H, Ivanovska M, et al. International Efforts to Save Healthcare Personnel during COVID-19. Acta Biomed. 2020;91(3):e2020044.
92. Hellmann H, Mooney S. Vitamin B6: a molecule for human health? Molecules. 2010;15(1):442-59.
93. Bates CJ, Pentieva KD, Prentice A, Mansoor MA, Finch S. Plasma pyridoxal phosphate and pyridoxic acid and their relationship to plasma homocysteine in a representative sample of British men and women aged 65 years and over. Br J Nutr. 1999;81(3):191-201.
94. Wang L. C-reactive protein levels in the early stage of COVID-19. Med Mal Infect. 2020;50(4):332-34.
95. Shen J, Lai CQ, Mattei J, Ordovas JM, Tucker KL. Association of vitamin B-6 status with inflammation, oxidative stress, and chronic inflammatory conditions: the Boston Puerto Rican Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91(2):337-42.
96. Wu C, Chen X, Cai Y, Xia J, Zhou X, Xu S, et al. Risk Factors Associated With Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome and Death in Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA Intern Med. 2020;180(7):934-43.
97. Dakshinamurti K, Paulose CS, Viswanathan M, Siow YL, Sharma SK, Bolster B. Neurobiology of pyridoxine. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1990;585:128-44.
98. Despoint R, Lupien P. Inhibition of renin response in pyridoxine-treated pregnant and non-pregnant rats. Can Med Assoc J 1968 Vol. 98, No. 2:109.
99. DeLorme CB, Lupien PJ, Despointes RH. Influence of vitamin B-6 on the renin--angiotensin system in rats. J Nutr. 1975;105(9):1192-8.
100. Mousavi S, Bereswill S, Heimesaat MM. Immunomodulatory and Antimicrobial Effects of Vitamin C. Eur J Microbiol Immunol (Bp). 2019;9(3):73-79.
101. Carr AC, Maggini S. Vitamin C and Immune Function. Nutrients. 2017;9(11):1211.
102. Barnes BJ, Adrover JM, Baxter-Stoltzfus A, Borczuk A, Cools-Lartigue J, Crawford JM, et al. Targeting potential drivers of COVID-19: Neutrophil extracellular traps. J Exp Med. 2020;217(6).
103. Colunga Biancatelli RML, Berrill M, Catravas JD, Marik PE. Quercetin and Vitamin C: An Experimental, Synergistic Therapy for the Prevention and Treatment of SARS-CoV-2 Related Disease (COVID-19). Front Immunol. 2020;11(1451):1451.
104. Hemila H, Chalker E. Vitamin C as a Possible Therapy for COVID-19. Infect Chemother. 2020;52(2):222-23.
105. Hemila H, Chalker E. Vitamin C for preventing and treating the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;2013(1):CD000980.
106. Hiedra R, Lo KB, Elbashabsheh M, Gul F, Wright RM, Albano J, et al. The use of IV vitamin C for patients with COVID-19: a case series. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2020;18(12):1259-61.
107. Patel V, Dial K, Wu J, Gauthier AG, Wu W, Lin M, et al. Dietary Antioxidants Significantly Attenuate Hyperoxia-Induced Acute Inflammatory Lung Injury by Enhancing Macrophage Function via Reducing the Accumulation of Airway HMGB1. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(3):977.
108. Kim TK, Lim HR, Byun JS. Vitamin C supplementation reduces the odds of developing a common cold in Republic of Korea Army recruits: randomised controlled trial. BMJ Mil Health. 2022;168(2):117-23.
109. Gorton HC, Jarvis K. The effectiveness of vitamin C in preventing and relieving the symptoms of virus-induced respiratory infections. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 1999;22(8):530-3.
110. Feyaerts AF, Luyten W. Vitamin C as prophylaxis and adjunctive medical treatment for COVID-19? Nutrition. 2020;79-80:110948.
111. Carr AC. A new clinical trial to test high-dose vitamin C in patients with COVID-19. Crit Care. 2020;24(1):133.
112. Cheng RZ. Can early and high intravenous dose of vitamin C prevent and treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)? Med Drug Discov. 2020;5:100028.
113. Li R, Wu K, Li Y, Liang X, Lai KP, Chen J. Integrative pharmacological mechanism of vitamin C combined with glycyrrhizic acid against COVID-19: findings of bioinformatics analyses. Brief Bioinform. 2021;22(2):1161-74.
114. Robaszkiewicz A, Balcerczyk A, Bartosz G. Antioxidative and prooxidative effects of quercetin on A549 cells. Cell Biol Int. 2007;31(10):1245-50.
115. Uchide N, Toyoda H. Antioxidant therapy as a potential approach to severe influenza-associated complications. Molecules. 2011;16(3):2032-52.
116. Nair MP, Kandaswami C, Mahajan S, Chadha KC, Chawda R, Nair H, et al. The flavonoid, quercetin, differentially regulates Th-1 (IFNgamma) and Th-2 (IL4) cytokine gene expression by normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2002;1593(1):29-36.
117. Momtazmanesh S, Ochs HD, Uddin LQ, Perc M, Routes JM, Vieira DN, et al. All together to Fight COVID-19. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2020;102(6):1181-83.
118. Rezaei N. COVID-19 affects healthy pediatricians more than pediatric patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2020;41(9):1106-07.
119. Mirbeyk M, Rezaei N. The impact of COVID-19 on pregnancy and neonatal health: a systematic review. Europe PMC. 2020.
120. Basiri A, Heidari A, Nadi MF, Fallahy MTP, Nezamabadi SS, Sedighi M, et al. Microfluidic devices for detection of RNA viruses. Rev Med Virol. 2021;31(1):1-11.
121. Sahu KK, Siddiqui AD, Rezaei N, Cerny J. Challenges for management of immune thrombocytopenia during COVID-19 pandemic. J Med Virol. 2020;92(11):2277-82.
122. Jabbari P, Rezaei N. With Risk of Reinfection, Is COVID-19 Here to Stay? Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2020;14(4):e33.
123. Mohamed K, Rodriguez-Roman E, Rahmani F, Zhang H, Ivanovska M, Makka SA, et al. Borderless collaboration is needed for COVID-19-A disease that knows no borders. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2020;41(10):1245-46.
124. Moradian N, Ochs HD, Sedikies C, Hamblin MR, Camargo CA, Jr., Martinez JA, et al. The urgent need for integrated science to fight COVID-19 pandemic and beyond. J Transl Med. 2020;18(1):205.
125. Rzymski P, Nowicki M, Mullin GE, Abraham A, Rodríguez-Román E, Petzold MB, et al. Quantity does not equal quality: scientific principles cannot be sacrificed. Int Immunopharmacol 2020;86:106711.
126. Basiri A, Pazhouhnia Z, Beheshtizadeh N, Hoseinpour M, Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Regenerative Medicine in COVID-19 Treatment: Real Opportunities and Range of Promises. Stem Cell Rev Rep. 2021;17(1):163-75.
127. Jahanshahlu L, Rezaei N. Monoclonal antibody as a potential anti-COVID-19. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020;129:110337.
128. Mansourabadi AH, Sadeghalvad M, Mohammadi-Motlagh HR, Rezaei N. The immune system as a target for therapy of SARS-CoV-2: A systematic review of the current immunotherapies for COVID-19. Life Sci. 2020;258:118185.
129. Pashaei M, Rezaei N. Immunotherapy for SARS-CoV-2: potential opportunities. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2020;20(10):1111-16.
130. Seyedpour S, Khodaei B, Loghman AH, Seyedpour N, Kisomi MF, Balibegloo M, et al. Targeted therapy strategies against SARS-CoV-2 cell entry mechanisms: A systematic review of in vitro and in vivo studies. J Cell Physiol. 2021;236(4):2364-92.
131. Pourahmad R, Moazzami B, Rezaei N. E ficacy of Plasmapheresis and Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy (IVIG) on Patients with COVID-19. SN Compr Clin Med. 2020;2(9):1407-11.
132. Moazzami B, Razavi-Khorasani N, Dooghaie Moghadam A, Farokhi E, Rezaei N. COVID-19 and telemedicine: Immediate action required for maintaining healthcare providers well-being. J Clin Virol. 2020;126:104345.
133. Mohamed K, Yazdanpanah N, Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Computational drug discovery and repurposing for the treatment of COVID-19: A systematic review. Bioorg Chem. 2021;106:104490.
134. Rabiee N, Rabiee M, Bagherzadeh M, Rezaei N. COVID-19 and picotechnology: Potential opportunities. Med Hypotheses. 2020;144:109917.
135. Neuzil KM, Gruber WC, Chytil F, Stahlman MT, Graham BS. Safety and pharmacokinetics of vitamin A therapy for infants with respiratory syncytial virus infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995;39(5):1191-3.
136. Martin Gimenez VM, Inserra F, Tajer CD, Mariani J, Ferder L, Reiter RJ, et al. Lungs as target of COVID-19 infection: Protective common molecular mechanisms of vitamin D and melatonin as a new potential synergistic treatment. Life Sci. 2020;254:117808.
137. Marik PE, Khangoora V, Rivera R, Hooper MH, Catravas J. Hydrocortisone, Vitamin C, and Thiamine for the Treatment of Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock: A Retrospective Before-After Study. Chest. 2017;151(6):1229-38.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 6, No 1 (2023) | |
| Section | Review Article | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/igj.v6i1.16339 | |
| Keywords | ||
| COVID-19 Cytokine Storm Nutrients SARS-CoV-2 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Vitamins | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
|
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Najdaghi S, Razi S, Saghazadeh A. Vitamins in COVID-19: Probable Mechanisms and Efficacy. Immunol Genet J. 2023;6(1):6-20.
