The Immunomodulatory Effects of Probiotics on Respiratory Viral Infections: A Hint for COVID-19 Prophylaxis?
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Abstract
The most common human illness is upper respiratory tract infection. It causes a high rate of absenteeism from school and work, as well as decreased efficiency and productivity. Individuals with chronic diseases such as asthma, as well as preterm infants and the elderly, are more susceptible to viral respiratory tract infections. Preliminary studies have shown that probiotics, reduce allergic diseases, asthma and strengthen the immune system, which reduces viral infections. In this mini-review we look at how probiotics and prebiotics affect viral respiratory tract infection. Functional foods containing well-defined probiotic strains, such as probiotic milk or yogurt, can reduce the risk of catching a cold and represent an easy, healthy, reliable, and accessible method for preventing respiratory infections, especially in developing countries. More research is needed to determine the role of probiotics and prebiotics in the treatment and prevention of RTIs, as well as to determine whether any susceptible subgroups of respiratory diseases exist and how these subgroups benefit from probiotic supplementation.
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3. Rerksuppaphol S,Rerksuppaphol L. Randomized controlled trial of probiotics to reduce common cold in schoolchildren. Pediatr Int. 2012;54(5):682-7.
4. Lenoir-Wijnkoop I, Merenstein D, Korchagina D, Broholm C, Sanders M E,Tancredi D. Probiotics Reduce Health Care Cost and Societal Impact of Flu-Like Respiratory Tract Infections in the USA: An Economic Modeling Study. Front Pharmacol. 2019;10:980.
5. Lehtoranta L, Pitkäranta A,Korpela R. Probiotics in respiratory virus infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2014;33(8):1289-302.
6. Goodall E C, Granados A C, Luinstra K, Pullenayegum E, Coleman B L, Loeb M, et al. Vitamin D3 and gargling for the prevention of upper respiratory tract infections: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14:273.
7. Jacobs S E, Lamson D M, St George K,Walsh T J. Human rhinoviruses. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2013;26(1):135-62.
8. Tabasi M, Ashrafian F, Khezerloo J K, Eshghjoo S, Behrouzi A, Javadinia S A, et al. Changes in Gut Microbiota and Hormones After Bariatric Surgery: a Bench-to-Bedside Review. Obes Surg. 2019;29(5):1663-74.
9. Hao Q, Dong B R,Wu T. Probiotics for preventing acute upper respiratory tract infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015(2):Cd006895.
10. Heydarian F, Kianifar H R, Ahanchian H, Khakshure A, Seyedi J,Moshirian D. A comparison between traditional yogurt and probiotic yogurt in non-inflammatory acute gastroenteritis. Saudi Med J. 2010;31(3):280-3.
11. Jafari S A, Mehdizadeh-Hakkak A, Kianifar H R, Hebrani P, Ahanchian H,Abbasnejad E. Effects of probiotics on quality of life in children with cystic fibrosis; a randomized controlled trial. Iran J Pediatr. 2013;23(6):669-74.
12. Ichinohe T, Pang I K, Kumamoto Y, Peaper D R, Ho J H, Murray T S, et al. Microbiota regulates immune defense against respiratory tract influenza A virus infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011;108(13):5354-9.
13. UNICEF. The state of the world's children: Oxford University Press for UNICEF; 1996.
14. Luoto R, Ruuskanen O, Waris M, Kalliomäki M, Salminen S,Isolauri E. Prebiotic and probiotic supplementation prevents rhinovirus infections in preterm infants: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;133(2):405-13.
15. Rautava S, Salminen S,Isolauri E. Specific probiotics in reducing the risk of acute infections in infancy--a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Br J Nutr. 2009;101(11):1722-6.
16. Jackson D J, Gangnon R E, Evans M D, Roberg K A, Anderson E L, Pappas T E, et al. Wheezing rhinovirus illnesses in early life predict asthma development in high-risk children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;178(7):667-72.
17. Hales B J, Chai L Y, Elliot C E, Pearce L J, Zhang G, Heinrich T K, et al. Antibacterial antibody responses associated with the development of asthma in house dust mite-sensitised and non-sensitised children. Thorax. 2012;67(4):321-7.
18. Holt P G,Sly P D. Interaction between adaptive and innate immune pathways in the pathogenesis of atopic asthma: operation of a lung/bone marrow axis. Chest. 2011;139(5):1165-71.
19. Sundararaman A, Ray M, Ravindra P V,Halami P M. Role of probiotics to combat viral infections with emphasis on COVID-19. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2020;104(19):8089-104.
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23. Liu S, Hu P, Du X, Zhou T,Pei X. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG supplementation for preventing respiratory infections in children: a meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Indian Pediatr. 2013;50(4):377-81.
24. Liu Y S, Liu Q, Jiang Y L, Yang W T, Huang H B, Shi C W, et al. Surface-Displayed Porcine IFN-λ3 in Lactobacillus plantarum Inhibits Porcine Enteric Coronavirus Infection of Porcine Intestinal Epithelial Cells. J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2020;30(4):515-25.
25. Baud D, Dimopoulou Agri V, Gibson G R, Reid G,Giannoni E. Using Probiotics to Flatten the Curve of Coronavirus Disease COVID-2019 Pandemic. Front in public health. 2020;8:186-86.
26. Ahanchian H, Jafari S A, Ansari E, Ganji T, Kiani M A, Khalesi M, et al. A multi-strain Synbiotic may reduce viral respiratory infections in asthmatic children: a randomized controlled trial. Electron Physician. 2016;8(9):2833-39.
27. Ahanchian H, Ranjbar A, Reihani H, Yazdi A, Jafari S, Kiani M, et al. Synbiotic for Prevention of SARS-Cov2 Infection in High Risk Hospital Staffs: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Open J Nurs 2021(11):281-90.
28. Farid R, Ahanchian H, Jabbari F,Moghiman T. Effect of a new synbiotic mixture on atopic dermatitis in children: a randomized-controlled trial. Iran J Pediatr. 2011;21(2):225-30.
29. Zelaya H, Tsukida K, Chiba E, Marranzino G, Alvarez S, Kitazawa H, et al. Immunobiotic lactobacilli reduce viral-associated pulmonary damage through the modulation of inflammation-coagulation interactions. Int Immunopharmacol. 2014;19(1):161-73.
30. Esposito S, Rigante D,Principi N. Do children's upper respiratory tract infections benefit from probiotics? BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14:194.
31. Villena J, Chiba E, Tomosada Y, Salva S, Marranzino G, Kitazawa H, et al. Orally administered Lactobacillus rhamnosus modulates the respiratory immune response triggered by the viral pathogen-associated molecular pattern poly(I:C). BMC Immunol. 2012;13:53.
32. Becker Y. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) evades the human adaptive immune system by skewing the Th1/Th2 cytokine balance toward increased levels of Th2 cytokines and IgE, markers of allergy—a review. Virus genes. 2006;33(2):235-52.
33. Chiba E, Tomosada Y, Vizoso-Pinto M G, Salva S, Takahashi T, Tsukida K, et al. Immunobiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus improves resistance of infant mice against respiratory syncytial virus infection. Int Immunopharmacol. 2013;17(2):373-82.
34. Park M K, Ngo V, Kwon Y M, Lee Y T, Yoo S, Cho Y H, et al. Lactobacillus plantarum DK119 as a probiotic confers protection against influenza virus by modulating innate immunity. PLoS One. 2013;8(10):e75368.
35. Lee Y N, Youn H N, Kwon J H, Lee D H, Park J K, Yuk S S, et al. Sublingual administration of Lactobacillus rhamnosus affects respiratory immune responses and facilitates protection against influenza virus infection in mice. Antiviral Res. 2013;98(2):284-90.
36. Kobayashi N, Saito T, Uematsu T, Kishi K, Toba M, Kohda N, et al. Oral administration of heat-killed Lactobacillus pentosus strain b240 augments protection against influenza virus infection in mice. Int Immunopharmacol. 2011;11(2):199-203.
37. Quigley E M. Prebiotics and probiotics; modifying and mining the microbiota. Pharmacol Res. 2010;61(3):213-8.
38. Schijf M A, Kruijsen D, Bastiaans J, Coenjaerts F E, Garssen J, van Bleek G M, et al. Specific dietary oligosaccharides increase Th1 responses in a mouse respiratory syncytial virus infection model. J Virol. 2012;86(21):11472-82.
39. Lo Skiavo L A, Gonchar N V, Suvorov A N, Shabalov N P,Grigor'ev S G. [Value of probiotic in reducing frequency of infectious complications in premature infants]. Antibiot Khimioter. 2014;59(1-2):30-5.
40. Holt P,Jones C. The development of the immune system during pregnancy and early life. Allergy. 2000;55(8):688-97.
41. Organization W H. Children: improving survival and well-being. fact sheets [Internet]. 2020:1-5.
42. Taipale T, Pienihäkkinen K, Isolauri E, Larsen C, Brockmann E, Alanen P, et al. Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BB-12 in reducing the risk of infections in infancy. Br J Nutr. 2011;105(3):409-16.
43. Hojsak I, Snovak N, Abdović S, Szajewska H, Misak Z,Kolacek S. Lactobacillus GG in the prevention of gastrointestinal and respiratory tract infections in children who attend day care centers: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Nutr. 2010;29(3):312-6.
44. Hatakka K, Savilahti E, Pönkä A, Meurman J H, Poussa T, Näse L, et al. Effect of long term consumption of probiotic milk on infections in children attending day care centres: double blind, randomised trial. Bmj. 2001;322(7298):1327.
45. Kumpu M, Lehtoranta L, Roivainen M, Rönkkö E, Ziegler T, Söderlund-Venermo M, et al. The use of the probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and viral findings in the nasopharynx of children attending day care. J Med Virol. 2013;85(9):1632-8.
46. Hatakka K, Blomgren K, Pohjavuori S, Kaijalainen T, Poussa T, Leinonen M, et al. Treatment of acute otitis media with probiotics in otitis-prone children-a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomised study. Clin Nutr. 2007;26(3):314-21.
47. Kianifar H, Ahanchian H, Grover Z, Jafari S, Noorbakhsh Z, Khakshour A, et al. Synbiotic in the management of infantile colic: a randomised controlled trial. J Paediatr Child Health. 2014;50(10):801-5.
48. Lin J S, Chiu Y H, Lin N T, Chu C H, Huang K C, Liao K W, et al. Different effects of probiotic species/strains on infections in preschool children: A double-blind, randomized, controlled study. Vaccine. 2009;27(7):1073-9.
49. Stockert K, Schneider B, Porenta G, Rath R, Nissel H,Eichler I. Laser acupuncture and probiotics in school age children with asthma: a randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study of therapy guided by principles of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2007;18(2):160-6.
50. van der Aa L B, van Aalderen W M, Heymans H S, Henk Sillevis Smitt J, Nauta A J, Knippels L M, et al. Synbiotics prevent asthma-like symptoms in infants with atopic dermatitis. Allergy. 2011;66(2):170-7.
51. de Vrese M, Winkler P, Rautenberg P, Harder T, Noah C, Laue C, et al. Effect of Lactobacillus gasseri PA 16/8, Bifidobacterium longum SP 07/3, B. bifidum MF 20/5 on common cold episodes: a double blind, randomized, controlled trial. Clin Nutr. 2005;24(4):481-91.
52. Berggren A, Lazou Ahrén I, Larsson N,Önning G. Randomised, double-blind and placebo-controlled study using new probiotic lactobacilli for strengthening the body immune defence against viral infections. Eur J Nutr. 2011;50(3):203-10.
53. Olivares M, Díaz-Ropero M P, Sierra S, Lara-Villoslada F, Fonollá J, Navas M, et al. Oral intake of Lactobacillus fermentum CECT5716 enhances the effects of influenza vaccination. Nutrition. 2007;23(3):254-60.
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2. Gern J E. The ABCs of rhinoviruses, wheezing, and asthma. J Virol. 2010;84(15):7418-26.
3. Rerksuppaphol S,Rerksuppaphol L. Randomized controlled trial of probiotics to reduce common cold in schoolchildren. Pediatr Int. 2012;54(5):682-7.
4. Lenoir-Wijnkoop I, Merenstein D, Korchagina D, Broholm C, Sanders M E,Tancredi D. Probiotics Reduce Health Care Cost and Societal Impact of Flu-Like Respiratory Tract Infections in the USA: An Economic Modeling Study. Front Pharmacol. 2019;10:980.
5. Lehtoranta L, Pitkäranta A,Korpela R. Probiotics in respiratory virus infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2014;33(8):1289-302.
6. Goodall E C, Granados A C, Luinstra K, Pullenayegum E, Coleman B L, Loeb M, et al. Vitamin D3 and gargling for the prevention of upper respiratory tract infections: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14:273.
7. Jacobs S E, Lamson D M, St George K,Walsh T J. Human rhinoviruses. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2013;26(1):135-62.
8. Tabasi M, Ashrafian F, Khezerloo J K, Eshghjoo S, Behrouzi A, Javadinia S A, et al. Changes in Gut Microbiota and Hormones After Bariatric Surgery: a Bench-to-Bedside Review. Obes Surg. 2019;29(5):1663-74.
9. Hao Q, Dong B R,Wu T. Probiotics for preventing acute upper respiratory tract infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015(2):Cd006895.
10. Heydarian F, Kianifar H R, Ahanchian H, Khakshure A, Seyedi J,Moshirian D. A comparison between traditional yogurt and probiotic yogurt in non-inflammatory acute gastroenteritis. Saudi Med J. 2010;31(3):280-3.
11. Jafari S A, Mehdizadeh-Hakkak A, Kianifar H R, Hebrani P, Ahanchian H,Abbasnejad E. Effects of probiotics on quality of life in children with cystic fibrosis; a randomized controlled trial. Iran J Pediatr. 2013;23(6):669-74.
12. Ichinohe T, Pang I K, Kumamoto Y, Peaper D R, Ho J H, Murray T S, et al. Microbiota regulates immune defense against respiratory tract influenza A virus infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011;108(13):5354-9.
13. UNICEF. The state of the world's children: Oxford University Press for UNICEF; 1996.
14. Luoto R, Ruuskanen O, Waris M, Kalliomäki M, Salminen S,Isolauri E. Prebiotic and probiotic supplementation prevents rhinovirus infections in preterm infants: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;133(2):405-13.
15. Rautava S, Salminen S,Isolauri E. Specific probiotics in reducing the risk of acute infections in infancy--a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Br J Nutr. 2009;101(11):1722-6.
16. Jackson D J, Gangnon R E, Evans M D, Roberg K A, Anderson E L, Pappas T E, et al. Wheezing rhinovirus illnesses in early life predict asthma development in high-risk children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;178(7):667-72.
17. Hales B J, Chai L Y, Elliot C E, Pearce L J, Zhang G, Heinrich T K, et al. Antibacterial antibody responses associated with the development of asthma in house dust mite-sensitised and non-sensitised children. Thorax. 2012;67(4):321-7.
18. Holt P G,Sly P D. Interaction between adaptive and innate immune pathways in the pathogenesis of atopic asthma: operation of a lung/bone marrow axis. Chest. 2011;139(5):1165-71.
19. Sundararaman A, Ray M, Ravindra P V,Halami P M. Role of probiotics to combat viral infections with emphasis on COVID-19. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2020;104(19):8089-104.
20. Salman J A-S, Mahmood N N, Abdulsattar B O,Abid H A. The Effectiveness of Probiotics against Viral Infections: A Rapid Review with Focus on SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Open Access Maced J Med Sci. 2020;8(T1):496-508.
21. Gohil K, Samson R, Dastager S,Dharne M. Probiotics in the prophylaxis of COVID-19: something is better than nothing. 3 Biotech. 2021;11(1):1-1.
22. Xu K, Cai H, Shen Y, Ni Q, Chen Y, Hu S, et al. [Management of corona virus disease-19 (COVID-19): the Zhejiang experience]. Zhejiang Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban. 2020;49(1):147-57.
23. Liu S, Hu P, Du X, Zhou T,Pei X. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG supplementation for preventing respiratory infections in children: a meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Indian Pediatr. 2013;50(4):377-81.
24. Liu Y S, Liu Q, Jiang Y L, Yang W T, Huang H B, Shi C W, et al. Surface-Displayed Porcine IFN-λ3 in Lactobacillus plantarum Inhibits Porcine Enteric Coronavirus Infection of Porcine Intestinal Epithelial Cells. J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2020;30(4):515-25.
25. Baud D, Dimopoulou Agri V, Gibson G R, Reid G,Giannoni E. Using Probiotics to Flatten the Curve of Coronavirus Disease COVID-2019 Pandemic. Front in public health. 2020;8:186-86.
26. Ahanchian H, Jafari S A, Ansari E, Ganji T, Kiani M A, Khalesi M, et al. A multi-strain Synbiotic may reduce viral respiratory infections in asthmatic children: a randomized controlled trial. Electron Physician. 2016;8(9):2833-39.
27. Ahanchian H, Ranjbar A, Reihani H, Yazdi A, Jafari S, Kiani M, et al. Synbiotic for Prevention of SARS-Cov2 Infection in High Risk Hospital Staffs: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Open J Nurs 2021(11):281-90.
28. Farid R, Ahanchian H, Jabbari F,Moghiman T. Effect of a new synbiotic mixture on atopic dermatitis in children: a randomized-controlled trial. Iran J Pediatr. 2011;21(2):225-30.
29. Zelaya H, Tsukida K, Chiba E, Marranzino G, Alvarez S, Kitazawa H, et al. Immunobiotic lactobacilli reduce viral-associated pulmonary damage through the modulation of inflammation-coagulation interactions. Int Immunopharmacol. 2014;19(1):161-73.
30. Esposito S, Rigante D,Principi N. Do children's upper respiratory tract infections benefit from probiotics? BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14:194.
31. Villena J, Chiba E, Tomosada Y, Salva S, Marranzino G, Kitazawa H, et al. Orally administered Lactobacillus rhamnosus modulates the respiratory immune response triggered by the viral pathogen-associated molecular pattern poly(I:C). BMC Immunol. 2012;13:53.
32. Becker Y. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) evades the human adaptive immune system by skewing the Th1/Th2 cytokine balance toward increased levels of Th2 cytokines and IgE, markers of allergy—a review. Virus genes. 2006;33(2):235-52.
33. Chiba E, Tomosada Y, Vizoso-Pinto M G, Salva S, Takahashi T, Tsukida K, et al. Immunobiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus improves resistance of infant mice against respiratory syncytial virus infection. Int Immunopharmacol. 2013;17(2):373-82.
34. Park M K, Ngo V, Kwon Y M, Lee Y T, Yoo S, Cho Y H, et al. Lactobacillus plantarum DK119 as a probiotic confers protection against influenza virus by modulating innate immunity. PLoS One. 2013;8(10):e75368.
35. Lee Y N, Youn H N, Kwon J H, Lee D H, Park J K, Yuk S S, et al. Sublingual administration of Lactobacillus rhamnosus affects respiratory immune responses and facilitates protection against influenza virus infection in mice. Antiviral Res. 2013;98(2):284-90.
36. Kobayashi N, Saito T, Uematsu T, Kishi K, Toba M, Kohda N, et al. Oral administration of heat-killed Lactobacillus pentosus strain b240 augments protection against influenza virus infection in mice. Int Immunopharmacol. 2011;11(2):199-203.
37. Quigley E M. Prebiotics and probiotics; modifying and mining the microbiota. Pharmacol Res. 2010;61(3):213-8.
38. Schijf M A, Kruijsen D, Bastiaans J, Coenjaerts F E, Garssen J, van Bleek G M, et al. Specific dietary oligosaccharides increase Th1 responses in a mouse respiratory syncytial virus infection model. J Virol. 2012;86(21):11472-82.
39. Lo Skiavo L A, Gonchar N V, Suvorov A N, Shabalov N P,Grigor'ev S G. [Value of probiotic in reducing frequency of infectious complications in premature infants]. Antibiot Khimioter. 2014;59(1-2):30-5.
40. Holt P,Jones C. The development of the immune system during pregnancy and early life. Allergy. 2000;55(8):688-97.
41. Organization W H. Children: improving survival and well-being. fact sheets [Internet]. 2020:1-5.
42. Taipale T, Pienihäkkinen K, Isolauri E, Larsen C, Brockmann E, Alanen P, et al. Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BB-12 in reducing the risk of infections in infancy. Br J Nutr. 2011;105(3):409-16.
43. Hojsak I, Snovak N, Abdović S, Szajewska H, Misak Z,Kolacek S. Lactobacillus GG in the prevention of gastrointestinal and respiratory tract infections in children who attend day care centers: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Nutr. 2010;29(3):312-6.
44. Hatakka K, Savilahti E, Pönkä A, Meurman J H, Poussa T, Näse L, et al. Effect of long term consumption of probiotic milk on infections in children attending day care centres: double blind, randomised trial. Bmj. 2001;322(7298):1327.
45. Kumpu M, Lehtoranta L, Roivainen M, Rönkkö E, Ziegler T, Söderlund-Venermo M, et al. The use of the probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and viral findings in the nasopharynx of children attending day care. J Med Virol. 2013;85(9):1632-8.
46. Hatakka K, Blomgren K, Pohjavuori S, Kaijalainen T, Poussa T, Leinonen M, et al. Treatment of acute otitis media with probiotics in otitis-prone children-a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomised study. Clin Nutr. 2007;26(3):314-21.
47. Kianifar H, Ahanchian H, Grover Z, Jafari S, Noorbakhsh Z, Khakshour A, et al. Synbiotic in the management of infantile colic: a randomised controlled trial. J Paediatr Child Health. 2014;50(10):801-5.
48. Lin J S, Chiu Y H, Lin N T, Chu C H, Huang K C, Liao K W, et al. Different effects of probiotic species/strains on infections in preschool children: A double-blind, randomized, controlled study. Vaccine. 2009;27(7):1073-9.
49. Stockert K, Schneider B, Porenta G, Rath R, Nissel H,Eichler I. Laser acupuncture and probiotics in school age children with asthma: a randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study of therapy guided by principles of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2007;18(2):160-6.
50. van der Aa L B, van Aalderen W M, Heymans H S, Henk Sillevis Smitt J, Nauta A J, Knippels L M, et al. Synbiotics prevent asthma-like symptoms in infants with atopic dermatitis. Allergy. 2011;66(2):170-7.
51. de Vrese M, Winkler P, Rautenberg P, Harder T, Noah C, Laue C, et al. Effect of Lactobacillus gasseri PA 16/8, Bifidobacterium longum SP 07/3, B. bifidum MF 20/5 on common cold episodes: a double blind, randomized, controlled trial. Clin Nutr. 2005;24(4):481-91.
52. Berggren A, Lazou Ahrén I, Larsson N,Önning G. Randomised, double-blind and placebo-controlled study using new probiotic lactobacilli for strengthening the body immune defence against viral infections. Eur J Nutr. 2011;50(3):203-10.
53. Olivares M, Díaz-Ropero M P, Sierra S, Lara-Villoslada F, Fonollá J, Navas M, et al. Oral intake of Lactobacillus fermentum CECT5716 enhances the effects of influenza vaccination. Nutrition. 2007;23(3):254-60.
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| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 4, No 2 (2021) | |
| Section | Review Article | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/igj.v4i2.9982 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Probiotics Prebiotics Viral Respiratory Tract Infections Covid-19 | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Ahanchian H, Tafrishi R. The Immunomodulatory Effects of Probiotics on Respiratory Viral Infections: A Hint for COVID-19 Prophylaxis?. Immunol Genet J. 2021;4(2):67-75.
